Издательский дом СПЕКТР

CONTENTS
Nondestructive  testing:  Handbook:  In  8  volumes / Еdited  by  V.V. Klyuev / Volume 5: In 2 books

Book 1: V.P. Vavilov.  Thermal/Infrared Testing.
Book 2: K.V. Podmasteryev,  F.R. Sosnin,  S.F. Korndorf,  T.I. Nogachyova,  E.V. Pakholkin, L.A. Bondareva,  V.F. Muzhitskiy. Electrical Testing

Book 1. THERMAL TESTING
PREFACE

Chapter 1. PHYSICAL MODELS IN TNDT
1.1. Terminology
1.2. Basic inspection procedures
1.3. Heaters in TNDT

Chapter 2. HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLID BODIES
2.1. Heat transfer mechanisms
2.1.1. Heat conduction, con-vection and radiation
2.1.2. Boundary conditions
2.1.3. Heat transfer in defects and on layer boundaries
2.2. Differential equation of heat conduction
2.2.1. Parabolic equation of heat conduction in Cartesian coordinates
2.2.2. Parabolic equation of heat conduction in cylindrical and spherical coordinates
2.2.2. Hyperbolic equation of heat conduction in Cartesian coordinates
2.3. Thermal properties of materials
2.4. Classical solutions of heat conduction
2.5. TNDT parameters of interest
2.5.1. Amplitude and temporal parameters of interest
2.5.2. Magnitude and phase parameters of interest
2.6. Direct and inverse TNDT problems
2.7. Analysis of classical heat conduction solutions

Chapter 3. Determining the-rmal properties of materials
3.1. Temperature evolution in different coordinates
3.2. Determining material ef-fusivity (front surface of an adiabatic semi-infinite body heated with a Dirac heat pulse)
3.3. Determining material thermal diffusivity (rear surface of an adiabatic plate heated with a Dirac heat pulse)
3.4. Determining material thermal diffusivity (front surface of an adiabatic plate heated with a Dirac heat pulse)
3.5. Determining sample thickness and corrosion material loss (front surface of an adiabatic plate heated with a Dirac heat pulse)
3.6. Determining optimum observation time for subsurface defects (an adiabatic semi-infinite body heated with a Dirac heat pulse)
3.7. Sensitivity functions
3.7.1. Semi-infinite body
3.7.2. Plate
3.7.3. Evaluating material loss
3.7.4. Determining thermal diffusivity
3.7.5. Separating information between thermal diffusivity and heat exchange coefficient
3.7.6. Manipulating the temperature response on the plate front surface
3.7.7. Evaluating TNDT limits in determining material thermal properties
3.8. Determining anisotropic thermal diffusivity
3.9. Non-stationary heating of a multi-layer plate
3.9.1. Three-layer non-adi-abatic plate with an ideal con-tact between layers
3.9.2. Three-layer adiabatic plate with ideal contact between layers
3.9.3. Two-layer adiabatic plate with the thermal resistance between (square-pulse heating)
3.9.4. Two-layer adiabatic plate with the thermal resistance between (Dirac-pulse heating)
3.10. 1D thermal waves
3.10.1. Semi-infinite adiabatic body
3.10.2. Semi-infinite non-adiabatic body
3.10.3. Non-adiabatic plate
3.10.4. Temperature waves at the interface of two media
3.11. The relationship between pulsed and harmonic thermal waves
3.12. Steady-state heat conduction through a planar wall and determination of wall thermal resistance
3.13. Evaluating air leaks by using IR thermography

Chapter 4. HEAT CONDUCTI-ON IN DEFECTIVE STRUCTURES AND OPTIMIZATION OF TNDT PROCEDURES

4.1. Methods for solving TNDT problems
4.1.1. Thermophysical description of defects
4.1.2. Laplace transform and method of thermal quadrupoles
4.1.3. Numerical methods
4.1.4. Accuracy of numerical computations
4.1.5. Commercial software for numerical solving thermal NDT problems
4.2. 1D TNDT models
4.2.1. Temperature signal in a 1D model
4.2.2. 1D TNDT model with a thermally-insulating defect
4.2.3. Harmonic thermal waves
4.2.4. Pulsed thermal waves
4.2.5. Applicability limits for realistic 1D models
4.3. 2D TNDT models
4.3.1. One-layer plate with a channel-like defect (Cartesian coordinates)
4.3.2. Three-layer anisotropic non-adiabatic plate with a thermally-capacitive defect (cylindrical coordinates)
4.4. Simple 3D model for detecting a vertical surface crack by heating a semi-infinite a body with a moving heat source
4.5. 3D TNDT adiabatic problem
4.6. General TNDT 3D model (three-layer anisotropic non-adiabatic plate with arbitrary thermally-capacitive defects)
4.7. Detection conditions for subsurface defects
4.8. Dependencies between temperature signals and sample parameters
4.8.1. Evolution of temperature signals in time
4.8.2. Defect depth
4.8.3. Defect thickness
4.8.4. Defect lateral size and configuration
4.8.5. Heating protocol
4.8.6. Material
4.8.7. Heating power and surface heat exchange
4.8.8. Thermal properties anisotropy
4.8.9. Temperature distribution over a crack located perpendicularly to front surface
4.8.10. Forced cooling
4.8.11. Identifying neighbor defects
4.9. Optimal detection parameters: examples
4.10. Advanced TNDT models
4.10.1. Detecting Teflon inserts in CFRP composite
4.10.2. Detecting buried landmines

Chapter 5. DEFECT CHARACTE-RIZATION

5.1. Defect characterization by analyzing temperature response on the front surface of the plate heated with a pulse
5.1.1. Apparent effusivity technique (Dirac pulse heating)
5.1.2. Using early detection times
5.1.3. Characterizing thin high-conductive materials under flash heating
5.2. "Individual" inversion functions
5.3. Generalized inversion formulas
5.4. Simplified inversion for-mulas
5.4.1. Determining the depth and the thermal resistance of the defects located between two high-conductive plates
5.4.2. Determining defect depth by optimum observation time
5.4.3. Determining defect thermal resistance by using the zero order temporal moment
5.5. Defect characterization in the Laplace domain (thermally-resistive defects)
5.5.1. Analyzing rear-surface differential temperature signal
5.5.2. Analyzing front-surface differential temperature signal
5.5.3. Coating on substrate: two-sided TNDT
5.6. Defect characterization by non-linear fitting (minimizing residual functional)
5.6.1. Using classical heat conduction solutions
5.6.2. Using multi-dime-sio-nal numerical solutions
5.7. Determining defect lateral size
5.7.1. Using spatial temperature profiles
5.7.2. Point source function and defect characterization in the Fourier domain
5.7.3. Laplacian and restoring defect fuzzy borders
5.7.4. Using the solution for a 3D TNDT adiabatic problem
5.8. Evaluating hidden corrosion: general inversion formulas

Chapter 6. DATA PROCESSING IN TNDT
6.1. Optimum observation method
6.2. Early detection technique
6.3. Dynamic thermal tomography (maxigrams and timegrams)
6.3.1. Basic principles
6.3.2. Maxigram, timegram and tomogram
6.3.3. Artifacts
6.3.4. Uneven heating
6.3.5. Influence of noise on the maxigram and timegram appearance
6.4. Adaptive thermal tomography
6.5. Pulsed phase thermo-graphy
6.5.1. Basic principles
6.5.2. Quantitative approach to phase thermography
6.5.3. Phase tomography
6.6. Wavelet analysis
6.7. Defect thermal characterization
6.8. Quantitative evaluation of hidden corrosion
6.9. Thermal wave IR thermography
6.9.1. Lock-in optical stimulation
6.9.2. Lock-in ultrasonic sti-mulation (periodical and pul-sed)
6.10. Fitting dynamic temperature functions
6.10.1. Polynomial fitting
6.10.2. Exponential fitting (thin high-conductive materials)
6.10.3. Temporal derivatives and synthetic data treatment (thermographic signal reconstruction)
6.11. Thermogram dynamic normalization
6.11.1. Normalizing by one image
6.11.2. 3D normalization
6.12. Moving heat source
6.12.1. Continuous heating
6.12.2. Photothermal me-thod (thermal waves and pulsed heating)
6.13. Combining TNDT and other NDT techniques (data fusion)
6.14. Thermo-mechanical ef-fects in solids
6.14.1. Vibrothermography and thermo-elasticity
6.14.2. Materials destruction 
6.15. Electromagnetic IR thermography
6.16. Eddy current IR thermography
6.17. Artificial intellect (neural networks) in TNDT
6.18. Principal component analysis
6.19. TNDT of objects of complicated shape
6.20. Standard processing of IR images
6.17.1. Image enhancement
6.17.2. Histogram processing
6.17.3. Color palette
6.17.4. Image sharpening
6.17.5. Image smoothing
6.17.6. Border enhancement
6.17.7. Morphological filtration
6.17.8. Image restoration
6.17.8. Image subtraction and division

Chapter 7. THEORY OF THERMAL RADIATION

7.1. Short review of IR technology and IR thermography
7.2. Basics of thermal radiation theory
7.2.1. Electromagnetic spectrum and units
7.2.2. Thermal radiation laws
7.2.3. Thermography scheme
7.2.4. Emissivity problem
7.2.5. The relationship between true and apparent temperatures
7.2.6. Dual-band IR thermography
7.2.7. Propagation of IR radiation through the atmosphere

Chapter 8. EQUIPMENT FOR ACTIVE TNDT

8.1. The system approach to designing active TNDT equipment
8.2. Commercial TNDT systems
8.3. Thermal stimulation systems in active TNDT

Chapter 9. INFRARED SYSTEMS

9.1. IR visualizing systems
9.2. IR detectors
9.2.1. Thermal detectors
9.2.2. Photoemissive detectors
9.2.3. Photonic detectors
9.2.4.Quantum well photo-detectors
9.2.5. Arrays
9.2.6. Parameters of IR detectors
9.3. Optics of IR imagers
9.3.1. Focus length, magnify-cation, aperture ratio and optical efficiency of optical objectives
9.3.2. Instantaneous field of view and field of view
9.3.3. Slit response function and modulation transfer function
9.4. Spatial and temperature resolution of IR imagers
9.4.1. Image format and frame rate
9.4.2. Temperature resolution
9.5. Modern IR imagers
9.5.1. Scanner
9.5.2. Electronics
9.5.3. B & W and color thermogram presentation
9.5.4. IR imager metrology and additional of data presentation
9.5.5. Recording and storing IR thermograms
9.5.6. Power supply
9.5.9. Software for data analysis and report compilation
9.5.8. Accessories
9.5.9. Classification of IR imagers
9.5.10. Commercial IR imagers
9.5.11.Choosing an IR imager
9.6. IR systems for the visualization of gas leaks
9.7. Visualization systems in the terahertz wavelength band
9.8. Line IR scanners
9.9. IR thermometers (pyrometers)
9.9.1. Portable IR thermometers
9.9.2.Mounted non-contact temperature sensors
9.10. Reference sources (blac-kbody models)
9.11. Contact temperature sensors
9.11.1. Thermopiles
9.11.2. Resistance temperature detectors
9.11.3. Thermistors
9.11.4.Integrated circuit sensors
9.11.5. Liquid crystals
9.11.6. Materials with calibrated melting points

Chapter 10. STATISTICAL DATA TREATMENT AND DECISION MAKING IN TNDT

10.1. Defect detection parameters in TNDT
10.2. Statistical decision making parameters
10.3. Map of defects
10.4. Pattern recognition in TNDT
10.5. Noise in TNDT

Chapters 11. APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL/INFRARED NDT

11.1. Introduction
11.2. Administrative, industrial and residential buildings
11.2.1. Preliminary notes
11.2.2. Estimating energy losses
11.2.3. Detecting hidden defects
11.2.4. Evaluating wall thermal resistance
11.2.5. Inspecting roof mois ture
11.2.6. IR imagers for building applications
11.2.7. Methodical aspects of IR building thermography
11.2.8. Illustrations
11.3. Active TNDT of objects of art
11.3.1. Introduction
11.3.2. Wall frescoes
11.3.3. Icons on wood
11.4. Chimneys
11.4.1. Introduction
11.4.2. IR imagers for the inspection of chimney
11.4.3. Chimney description
11.4.4. Performing surveys and analyzing results (illustrations)
11.5. Electrical installations
11.5.1. Methodical aspects of IR thermographic inspection of electrical equipment
11.5.2. Power transformers, autotransformers, oil reactors
11.5.3. Oil-filled current trans-formers
11.5.4. Oil-filled voltage transformers
11.5.5. Oil, aerial, vacuum and SF6 switches
11.5.6. Disconnectors and eliminators
11.5.7. Oil-filled inlets
11.5.8. Connecting and dividing capacitors
11.5.9. Power capacitors
11.5.10. Valve dischargers
11.5.11. Overvoltage limiters
11.5.12. Contact joints of switch-gears
11.5.13. High-frequency bloc-kers
11.5.14. Suspended porcelain and polymer isolators
11.5.15. Power cables
11.5.16. Storage batteries
11.5.17. Shielded current dis-tributors
11.5.18. Generators
11.5.19. Electric motors
11.5.20. Air power transmission lines
11.5.21. Electrical facilities of voltage 0.4-10 kV
11.6. Thermo-and hydro-technical equipment
11.6.1. Steam lines, steam and hot water boilers
11.6.2. Boiler heating surface
11.6.3. Cooling ponds
11.6.4. Heat networks
11.6.5. Turbine path vacuum equipment
11.7. Nuclear power plants
11.8. Aerospace industry
11.8.1. The repair concept of using TNDT in aviation
11.8.2. Detecting water ingress in aviation honeycomb panels
11.8.3. Detecting water ingress in the space shuttle thermal insulation
11.8.4. Turbine blades
11.8.5. Detecting and characterizing corrosion in aviation constructions
11.8.6. Composite materials
11.8.7. Components of space shuttles and rockets
11.8.8. TNDT of space shuttles on a launching pad and in the outer space
11.9. Petrochemical industry
11.10. Radio electronics
11.11. Rolled metals
11.12. Welded and soldered joints
11.12.1. Temperature control in the process of welding
11.12.2. Spot welding
11.12.3. TNDT of space shuttles on a launching pad and in the outer space
11.12.4. Active TNDT of soldered joints
11.13. Predicting lifetime of cutting tools by determining thermal diffusivity
11.14. Detecting corrosion in thick metals
11.15. Car production
11.16. Pulp-and-paper industry
11.17. Boat production (composite materials)
11.18. Food industry
11.19. Gas and oil leakages from pipes and tanks
11.20. Aerial IR monitoring
11.21. Detecting antipersonnel landmines
11.22. IR thermographic system for surveillance, guarding and anti-terrorism activity
11.23. Military area
11.24. Medicine
11.24.1. IR thermography
11.24.2. Microwave thermo-graphy (radio-thermometry)
11.25. Other application areas

Chapter 12. CERTIFICATION AND NORMATIVE DOCUMENTS IN TNDT

12.1. Certification of thermographers in Russia
12.2. TNDT normative docu-ments
12.2.1.Russian standards
12.2.2.Foreign standards
12.2.3.Other normative documents and guidelines

REFERENCES
Appendix 1. SENSITIVITY FUNCTIONS
Appendix 2. CALCULATING SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF A PLA-TE HEATED BY A DIRAC PULSE ON THE MATLAB PLATFORM
Appendix 3. PSYCHROMETRIC TABLE OF AIR RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Appendix 4. TYPICAL PROGRAM FOR CERTIFICATION IN THE AREA OF TNDT
Appendix 5. RECOMMENDED TNDT GENERAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

Book 2. ELECTRICAL TESTING
Introduction (K.V. Podmasterev)

Chapter 1. ELECTRICITY (F.R. Sosnin)
1.1. Electrostatics. Basic Terminology
1.2. System of Physical Quantities and Units, their Dimensions
1.3. Electrostatic Quantities
1.4. Electric Current. Basic Terms
1.5. Quantities Characterising
Electric Current

Chapter 2. ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES (F.R. Sosnin)
2.1. Electrical Conductivity
2.2. Conducting Materials
2.3. Dielectrics

Chapter 3. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES (S.F. Korndorf, T.I. Nogacheva)
3.1. Measurement of Current and Voltage
3.1.1. Electromechanical Instruments
3.1.2. Electronic Voltmeter
3.1.3. Digital Instruments
3.1.4. Compensation Instruments
3.2. Oscillographic Method
3.2.1. General Information
3.2.2. Classification and Use Peculiarities of Electron Oscillographs
3.2.3. Peculiarities of Modern Electronic Means
3.3. Bridge Method for Electric Circuit Parameters Measurement
3.3.1. General Information and Classification
3.3.2. Alternating Current Bridges
3.3.3. Transformer Bridges
3.3.4.  Phase-Sensitive Bridges
3.3.5. Special Bridge Circuits
3.3.6. Digital Bridges
3.4. Resonance Measuring Method
3.4.1. General Information
3.4.2. Measurement of Capacitance and Inductance
3.4.3. Active Resistance Measurement
3.4.4. Frequency Measurement
3.4.5. Q-Meters

Chapter 4. ELECTRICAL CONTACTS (K.V. Podmasterev)
4.1. General  Notions and Classification
4.2. Sliding Contacts  with Boundary Friction
4.2.1. Parameters, Characteristics and Design of Contacts
4.2.2. Tribotechnical Aspects of Electrical Contacts
4.2.3. Sliding Contact Materials
4.2.4. Operability Enhancement for Low-Current Sliding Current Collectors
4.3. Liquid Commutating Devices
4.4. Contactless Commutation Units
4.4.1. Units with Inductive Com-munication Channel
4.4.2. Units with Capacitive Communication Channel
4.4.3. Units with Optical Communication Channel

Chapter 5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ELECTROSPARK (F.R. Sosnin, K.V. Podmasterev)

5.1. Electric Potential Method
5.1.1. Principal Physics
5.1.2. Theoretical Basis
5.1.3. Application
5.1.4. Technical Basis
5.2. Electrospark Method
5.2.1. Principal Physics
5.2.2. Technical Basis

Chapter 6. ELECTRICAL RESISITIVITY METHOD (K.V. Podmasterev)

6.1. Testing of Metal Products
6.2. Conductometric Testing of Non-Metallic Materials
6.2.1. Methods and Means of Liquid and Gases Analysis
6.2.2. Methods and Means to Control Moisture Level in Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Materials
6.3. Lubricant Film Thickness Gauging
6.4. Tribocoupling Testing and Tribotesting
6.4.1. General Information and Physical Principles
6.4.2. Tested Parameters and Models
6.4.3. Flaw Detection Methods and Means
6.4.4. Methods and Means for Surface Shape Deviation Test
6.4.5. Methods and Means for Complex Test of Rolling Bearings and Bearing Blocks
6.4.6. Methods of Information Selection about TO State in the Unit
6.4.7. Type and Value of Applied Voltage to TO
6.5. Temperature Monitoring

Chapter 7. TENSORESISTIVE METHODS (F.R. Sosnin, E.V. Paholkin)

7.1. General Characteristics of the Strain-Gauging Method of Tensometry and Strain Gauges
7.2. Tensoresistive Effect
7.3. Strain Gauge Output Signal Transformation
7.4. Classification and Basic Parameters of Strain Gauges
7.5. Characteristics of Industrial Strain Gauges
7.6. Details of Strain Gauge Application
7.7. Measurement at Various Modes of Loading
7.8. Development Trends of the Strain Gauge Method and NDT Means

Chapter 8. ELECTROCAPACITIVE METHODS (L.A. Bondareva)

8.1. General Information and Physical Principles
8.2. Fields of Application
8.3. Theoretical Basis
8.3.1. Parameters of Capacitance Transducer
8.3.2. Dielcometer Method
8.3.3. Edge Effect of Capacitor Plates
8.4. Basics of Technical Implementation
8.4.1. Circuit and Transducer Designs
8.4.2. Measuring Circuits of Capacity Transducers

Chapter 9. THERMOELECTRIC METHODS (T.I. Nogacheva)

9.1. Thermoelectric Phenomena
9.2. Measurement of Thermoelectric Parameters of Materials
9.2.1. General Information
9.2.2. Measurement of the Thom-pson Coefficient
9.2.3. Material Thermoelectric Capability Measurement
9.2.4. Measurement of the Absolute Peltier Coefficients
9.3. Thermocouple Thermometry
9.3.1. Physical and Theoretical Bases
9.3.2. Basics of Technical Implementation
9.3.3. Means for ThermoEMF Measurement
9.3.4. Special Thermocouple Circuits
9.4. Application of Natural Thermocouples in NDT
9.4.1. General Information
9.4.2. Temperature Monitoring in Areas of Cutting
9.4.3. Cutting Tool Wear Rate Monitoring
9.4.4. Cold Rolling Temperature Monitoring
9.4.5 Coating Integrity Testing of Bimetallic Wire
9.4.6. Friction Temperature Monitoring
9.5. Means of Thermoelectric NDT
9.5.1. Basic Principles
9.5.2. Design Examples

Chapter 10. TRIBOELECTRIC, ELECTROSTATIC POWDER TESTING METHODS AND ME-THOD OF EXOELECTRON EMISSION (F.R. Sosnin, V.F. Muzhitskiy, E.V. Paholkin)

10.1. Triboelectricity
10.2. Triboelectric Testing Methods for Tribocouplings
10.2.1. Physics
10.2.2. Objects and Testing Methods
10.2.3. Principles of Technical Means
10.3. Electrostatic Powder Testing Method
10.4. Methods of Exoelectron Emission

Chapter 11. ELECTROFLUCTUATION METHODS (S.F. Korndorf )

11.1. Physics and Method Classification
11.2. Thermal Electrical Fluctuation Methods
11.3. Generation-Recombination Methods
11.4. Shot, Flicker, and Contact Fluctuations

REFERENCES

APPENDIX. Electrical Testing (ET). Personnel Typical Training Programme for Non-Destructive Testing

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